Harty pp. 207-275

Creating Visuals
to make the most effective use of visuals and to integrate them smoothly with the text of your document, consider your graphics requirements even before you begin to write. Plan your visuals when you're planning the scope and organization of your final work.

• Talking point: would this work for scientific research, especially if the results of an experiment are unknown at the time of the proposal?

Some guidelines:

• Why include your visual?-explain in the text why you've included an illustration
• is the information in your visual accurate?-use reliable sources
• is your visual focused?
• are terms and symbols in your visual defined and consistent?
• does your visual specify measurements and distances?-specify the units of measurement used or include a scale of relative distances, when appropriate.
• is the lettering readable?
• is the caption clear?
• is there a figure or table number?-note that graphics are generically labeled "figures" while tables are labeled "tables".
• is a list of figures or tables needed?-if there are more than 5 illustrations, it's necessary
• are figure or table numbers referred to in your text?
• are visuals appropriately placed?
• do visuals stand out from surrounding text?

A table is useful for showing large numbers of specific, related data in a brief space. The data may be numerical or verbal. Elements of a typical table: table number, table title, boxhead (under the title), stub (left-hand vertical column of a table), body, rules (lines-don't use them on the sides of the table), source line (where you obtained the data-when appropriate), footnotes, continuing tables.

• ethics note: place source information below the caption for a figure and below any footnotes at the bottom of a table.
• use tables to present data that you want readers to quickly evaluate and compare, and that would be difficult or tedious to present in your main text
• use informal tables-those without a title or number-when there are only a few items to categorize.

Graphs, also called charts, present numerical data in visual form, showing trends, movements, distributions, and cycles more readily than tables do.

• ethics note: be careful not to omit or distort the data in your visuals
• talking point: as a student i have always been told to be a skeptical reader and look for distorted tables, graphs and statistics. how much of this responsibility lies with the reader and how much lies with the writer? should all of the work be done by one or the other?
• less accurate than tables and for this reason are often accompanied by tables that give exact numbers.
• most commonly used graphs are line graphs, bar graphs, pie graphs and picture graphs.
• bar graphs: commonly used to show the following proportional relations-different types of information during different periods of time, quantities of the same kind of information at different periods of time, quantities of different information during a fixed period of time, and quantities of the different parts that make up a whole.
• pie graphs: when possible, begin at the 12 o'clock position and sequence the wedges clockwise from largest to smallest.
• picture graphs: also called pictograms, modified bar graphs that use picture symbols to represent the item for which data are presented. each symbol corresponds to a specified quantity of the item. usually work well for nonexpert audiences because they make the data more vivid and easier to remember.
• dimensional-column graphs: depict columns as three-dimensional pillars and give the data a solid, three-dimensional, building-block appearance. they can, however, obscure rather than clarify the information depending on how they are displayed.

Drawings: useful when your reader needs an impression of an object's general appearance or an overview of a series of steps or directions; best when you need to focus on details or relationships that a photograph cannot capture.

• if the actual appearance of an object or a phenomenon is necessary to your document, a photograph is essential.
• for general interest images use the clip-art libraries available.

Flowcharts: a diagram that shows the stages of a process from beginning to end; it presents an overview that allows readers to grasp essential steps quickly and easily. items in a flowchart are always connected according to the sequence in which the steps occur and typically flow left to right or top to bottom.

organizational charts: shows how the various components of an organization are related to one another. the title of each organizational component is placed in a separate box which is then linked to a central authority. the name of the person occupying the position in each box can be included as well.

photographs are vital to show the surface appearance of an object or to record an event or the development of a phenomenon over a period of time

Strategies of Persuasion: it is convenient but self-defeating to follow fixed prescriptions for persuasion; good writers vary their approaches in response to their readings of different situations.

1. consider whether your views will make problems for readers: if your views are bad for readers, you proceed to report them, but with empathy and tact and an effort to put yourself in the readers' shoes.
2. don't offer new ideas, directives, or recommendations for change until your readers are prepared for them: take into account the extent of your audience's resistance to change, the amount of change you are asking for, the uncertainty in readers' minds as to your understanding of their situation, and the "perceived threat" of your communication, that is, how much it seems (to readers) to upset their values and interests.
3. your credibility with readers affects your strategy: credibility itself is a variable; that is, it can be influenced by the words of the communicator. credibility lies in the eye of the beholder. Two types of credibility: given credibility may result from your position in an organization, your reputation, the individuals and groups the writer is associated with. you may need to remind readers of your high given credibility. Acquired credibility is earned by thoughts and facts in the written message. citing ideas or evidence that support the reader's existing views may earn the writer more given credibility.
4. if your audience disagrees with your ideas or is uncertain about them, present both sides of the argument: most influential writings acknowledge the shortcomings, weaknesses, and limitations of their arguments. Talking point: how far do you go with this? should you point out all of the flaws of your position and risk losing some support from readers?
5. win respect by making your opinion or recommendation clear: although strategy may call for a two-sided argument, this does not mean you should be timid in setting forth your conclusions or proposals at the end.
6. put your strongest points last if the audience is very interested in the argument, first if it is not so interested: "primacy-recency" issue-the argument presented first is said to have primacy; the argument presented last, recency. the ideas you state first or last have a better chance of being remembered than the ideas stated in the middle of your appeal or case.
7. don't count on changing attitudes by offering information alone: presentation of facts alone may only strengthen the opinions of people who already agree with the writer.
8. "testimonials" are most likely to be persuasive if drawn from people with whom readers associate: you suggest that they are not alone with you, that there is a group support for the points being made. the more deeply attached your readers are to a group; the greater the influence of the group norms on them.
9. be wary of using extreme or "sensational" claims and facts: observable, believable, realistic statements carry more weight than any other kinds. you can antagonize people with hyperbole. talking point: to me, hyperbolic statements oftentimes are useful in capturing the attention of the reader. i agree that they shouldn't be relied on to make a case, but they still have their place.
10. tailor your presentation to the reasons for readers' attitudes, if you know them: chances of persuading readers are better if you can plan you appeal or argument to meet the main feelings, prejudices, or reasons for their beliefs.
11. never mention other people without considering their possible effect on the reader: carbon copies and blind copies

we have a tendency to abstract written communications from real-life, to act as if the customary ground rules of influence and persuasion don't apply to a message that is in writing. write as if talking WITH people, not talking TO them.

Proposals:

Guidelines:

1. approach wrting a proposal as a problem solving activity-make the reader feel confident that you can solve the problem
2. regard your audience as skeptical readers
3. research your proposal carefully
4. prove that your proposal is workable: analyze and test your proposal to eliminate any quirks before the reader evaluates it
5. be sure that your proposal is financially realistic: study the economic climate
6. package your proposal attractively: letter-perfect, inviting and easy to read.

Informal Proposals: primary purpose is to offer a realistic and constructive plan to help your company run its business more efficiently and economically. informal proposal will be an in-house message, so a brief memo should be appropriate.

• writing an internal proposal requires you to be aware if and sensitive to office politics. show that the change you propose is in everyone's best interest. discuss your plan with your boss before putting it in writing. never submit a proposal that offers an idea you think will work but relies on someone else to supply the specific details on how it will work.

internal proposals usually contain four parts:

• the introduction: state why you think a specific change is necessary now. define the problem and emphasize that your plan, if approved, will solve that problem. where necessary, stress the urgency to act.
• background of the problem: the more concrete evidence you cite, the easier it will be to convince the reader that the problem is significant and that action needs to be taken now. avoid vague (and unsupported) generalizations. verify how widespread a problem is or how frequently it occurs by citing specific occasions.
• the solution or plan: describe the change you want approved. tie your solution (the change) directly to the problem you have just documented. supply details that answer if the plan is workable and if it's cost effective. it is also wise to raise alternative solutions, before the reader does, and to discuss their disadvantages.
• the conclusion: should be short.

Sales proposals: most common type of external proposals and purpose is to sell your company's products or services for a set fee. includes a sales pitch as well as a detailed description of the work that you propose to do.

• audience for a sales proposal may be even more skeptical since they may not know you or your work. will evaluate your proposal according to how well it meets their needs and how well it compares with the proposals submitted by your competitors.
• key to success is incorporating the "you attitude" throughout your proposal. different firms have different needs.

parts of a sales proposal:

• introduction: should prepare readers for everything that folloes in your proposal.
• statement of purpose and subject of proposal
• background of the problem-not as necessary in a solicited proposal
• description of the proposed product or service:
• show that your product/service is the right one
• describe your work in suitable detail
• stress any special features or benefits
• timetable: shows readers that you know your job and that you can accomplish it in the right amount of time.
• costs: make your budget accurate, complete, and convincing. (accepted by both parties, a proposal is a binding legal agreement).
• qualifications of your company: emphasize your company's accomplishments and expertise in using relevant services and equipment. don't misrepresent yourself!
• conclusion: "call to action" section

Writing proposals with style: style works at a few different levels in a proposal. style affects or influences almost all other elements of writing. style is who you are and how you reflect who you are, intentionally or unintentionally, in what you write. it illustrates your clear-headedness, your emphasis on quality, and your willingness to communicate and work with the readers. style enhances and amplifies content, but it should never be used artificially embellish or hide a lack of content.

• plain style: for instruction and demonstration; used mostly in the situation section and the qualifications section and occasionally the plan section
• middle style: for persuading people to take action
• grand style: for motivating people do some thing they already know they should do

8 guidelines for writing plainer sentences:

1. the subject should be what the sentence is about
2. make the "doer" the subject: the active person or thing usually makes the best subject of the sentence.
3. state the action in the verb: find the action in the sentence and make it the verb
4. put the subject early in the sentence: subject anchors the sentence; introductory or transitional phrases should be used sparingly and be to the point
5. eliminate nominalization: verbs and adjectives that have been turned into awkward nouns. happens for two reasons-humans generally think in nouns and some people mistakenly believe that using nominalizations makes their writing sound more formal or important.
6. avoid excessive prepositional phrases
7. eliminate redunancy: happens when points are stressed, sometimes buzzwords and jargon lead to redundancies, synonyms are used to modify another synonym.
8. make sentences "breathing length": applies to both short and long sentences

Elements of a paragraph:

• transition sentences: purpose is to make a smooth bridge from the previous paragraph to the present paragraph. most paragraphs don't need them
• topic sentence: the claim or statement that the rest of the paragraph is going to prove or support. it is the most important sentence in any given paragraph
• support sentences: if/then, cause/effect, better/worse, greater/lesser kinds of arguments intended to prove the claim made in the topic sentence
• point sentences: usually restate the topic sentence at the end of the paragraph, especially useful in longer paragraphs but still optional

two primary methods for developing plain paragraphs:

• line up the subjects so each sentence in the paragraph stresses the same things
• use the given/new method: every sentence in a paragraph should contain something the readers already know and something new that the readers don't know. the given information should be early in the sentence and the new information should appear later.

passive voice is appropriate when: the readers do not need to know who or what is doing something in the sentence OR the subject of the sentence is what the sentence is about. passive sentences can often help you align the subjects and use given/new strategies. in scientific and technical proposals, the passive voice is often the norm because who will be doing what isn't always predictable.